कम्प्यूटर हार्डवयर
Basic Electronic
Two types of electronics:
Electronic Electric
(DC) (AC)
Electronic is the science which study about the behavior of electrons. Electronic is a sub particle of atom.
Atom: Atom is a smallest particle of element.
Element: Element is a thing that cannot be friction and chemically or physically charge.
Copper: Force towards the center (Central Force)
Attraction between negative & positive
If the number of positively charge portion of highly then the positively energy or charge or charge will be generate.
Silver- Cupper
Gold- Aluminium
EMF (Electro Motive Force)
Current: Current is flow of electronic per unit time. It is measure in amp. The symbol of current is & denoted by I.
I=V/R
If the voltage is increased the current is increased and voltage is decreased the current is decreased. But resistance always decreases the current.
Types of Current
AC- Alternative Current
Magnitude and direction is change in per period.
DC- Direct Current
Magnitude and direction is not change in per period is called DC.
Resistor:
Resistor is a passive electronic component that offers a specific offers a specific amount of electrical resistance to flow the current when connect in a circuit. We measure resistance in "ohm" and denoted by
The symbol of resistor is Ω
V=RI
Resistance - Property of substance due to which it appose the flow of charge or flow of current.
Types of Resistor
o Fixed
o Variable
o Semi Variable
How to calculate the resistance value?
Color
Value
Multiplier(10s)
Multiplier(100)
Black
0
10 =1
100 =
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange
3
Yellow
4
Green
5
Blue
6
Violet
7
Grey
8
White
9
Tolerance:
Gold = ± 5%
Silver = ± 10% and tolerance is always fixed.
3rd Band is multiplier
4th Band is tolerance
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Red Ora Red Gold
2 3 2 5%
23X 100 ± 5%
2300 ± 5% of 2300
2300 ±115
2300-115 =2185
2300+115=2415
The resistance value of resistor is 2185 Ω to 2415 Ω
Resistor in Network
When two resistors are connected in series then,
1. Current across each resistor is same
I.e. I=I1=I2
2. V=V1+V2
If Rc be the combined resistance of this network,
Then
Rc= R1+R2
Since, We know from (2)
V=V1+V2
Or, IR=I1R1 + I2R2 (V=IR)
Or, IR=IR1+ IR2 (From 1)
Or, IR = I(R1+ R2)
R=R1+R2
When two resistors are connected in parallel, then
1. Volt across the circuit is same i.e. V=V1=V2
2. I= I1+ I2
I/Rc= 1/R1+ 1/ R2
From 2
I= I1+ I2
Or, V/R= V1/R1+ V2/R2
Or, V/R= V/R1+ V/R2
Or, V (1/R)= V(1/R1)+ V(1/R2)
1/R= 1/R1+ 1/R2
Capacitor
Capacitor is passive electronic component used to store charge in an electrical circuit. A capacitor functions like a battery.
A basic capacitor is made up of two conductors separated by an insulator dielectrical. The dielectric can be made of paper, plastic, ceramic, glass, vacuum or non conductive material.
Capacitor electron storing ability is called capacities and it is measured of Farad. One farad is actually a huge amount of charge i.e. 6, 28, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 electrons. So we usually rate capacitor in microfarads (mf). It is denoted by
Types of capacitor:
Types of capacitor as dielectric use:
DC- Filtering voltage multiplication
Function of capacitor:
o Charge storing
o Charge filtering
o Charge regulating
Transistor:
A transistor may be thought of as a solid state of device that is formed when two P-N junction diodes are tied together. A transistor is constructed from germanium & silicon semi conductor material.
A semi conductor is a material that likes some where between the conductor and insulator. The typical value of conductivity (i.e. semi conductor's value is 100 ohm/cm3)
Physical:
Symbol:
Function of transistor:
o Store electric charge
o Boot up the electrical signal
o Switching
Types of transistor:
Emitter Base Collector
Emitter Base Collector
Diode:
Diode is a combination of positive and negative type of semi conductor. The process of conversion from AC into DC is known as rectification.
Physical:
Symbol:
Types of Diode:
o Rectifier Diode(Black) (AC-DC)
o Zener Diode (RED) High Wattage
o Light Emitting Diode (Red) keyboard [ Provide Light Signal]
o Infrared Diode - Inside Mouse
o Laser Diode - Optical Mouse
o Photo Diode - CD- ROM lens Head
Transformer:
Transformer is an electrical device which transforms electrical voltage (AC) value. One value to another value. It consists of two coil one is primary and another is secondary.
Primary: In
Secondary: Out
Physical:
Symbol:
Function of transformer:
o Step up and step down of voltage
o AC in and AC out
IC Chips:
IC Chip is constructed by millions of resistor, transistor, capacitor or integrated circuit is combination of two or more than two circuit to perform a single task.
Physical
Types of IC Chips:
a) On the basis of Edge:
Single Edge Contact:
Double Edge Contact:
QUAD IC:
b) On the basis of function:
1. Analog IC Chips (Liner)
o Signals through wave like phone, Internet
o Store only analog information
2. Digital IC Chips:
o Digital IC Chips contains a logic gate which converts the wave or analog information into binary value ( i.e. 1s or 0s [ On & Off Beat] format.
Power supply
SMPS is an electronic device which input AC and Output DC.
Block Diagram OF SMPS
AC
AC DC
AC
DC
DC
Types of SMPS
AT ATX
1. Pin 12 pin (Double) 20 pins (single)
2. Message It is now safe to turn off…. No message
3. Transformer 2 3
Multimeter:
A multimeter measures the current volt meter measures the potential difference between two points and meter the resistance. The multimeter do all of the above function.
We can say that multimeter is an instrument that use to measure amp.(i.e. AC & DC), resistance (i.e. Continue)
Types of multimeter
Hardware
What is computer?
Computer is an electronic device which takes raw data, process it and gives a meaningful result. Computer contains three parts.
o Output device
o Input device
o Processing Unit
Types of Computer:
1. On the Basis of Manufacturer
o IBM-1981
o IBM PC
o IBM Compatible
- Dell
-Compaq
-Hp
-Apple Macintosh
-Toshiba
2. On the basis of size:
i. Super Computer( have analog and digital chip - mainly used for research purpose)
ii. Mainframe(Have 1 CPU, 100 user) for data entry
iii. Mini Computer
iv. Micro computer
3. On the Basis Of Function
i. Digital Computer
ii. Analog Computer
iii. Hybrid Computer
History of computer
Development of computer
1. The Abacus: The Abacus is the first computer which was used to calculate mathematical problem i.e. addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. It was developed around 100 AD.
2. The Analytical Engine: The first mechanical computer was the analytical engine developed by Charles Babbage in London between 1822 and 1871. It was designed to receive instruction from punch card makes calculation with aid of memory bank and print out solution of math problem.
3. The First Electrical Computer: The first electrical computer was developed on January 8, 1889 by Dr. Hermon Hollerith, using punch cards containing information submitted by respondent to census questionnaire. It was developed for U.S. Census Beuro to compute result of the 1890.
4. The Digital Electronic Computer: The first computer was ABC (Atanasoft Berry Computer). It was developed by John Atanasoft and Clifford Berry between 1939 & 1942. This machine utilized the concept of binary arithmetic, parallel processing, separate memory and computer function. When completion its weight was 750 pounds and could store in 3000 bits (4KB) of data.
5. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator & Computer): It was another digital computer. It was completed in 1945 and designed for to prepare firing and bombing tables for the U.S. Army and Navy. It consisted 30 separate units. It's weigh was 30 tons and used 19000 vacuum tubes, 1500 relays hundred of thousand resistor, capacitor, inductors. It requires 200 kilowatts to operate.
Another digital computer was Colossus I, built at secret British Government Research. It was designed for a single purpose i.e. code breaking.
The 1960's and 1970's is the golden era for the mainframe computer.
Development of computer:
YEAR
EVENT
1971
4004 processor
-first 4 bit processor
- introduce by Intel
- clock speed upto 1 MHz
1972
8008 processor- first 8 bit microprocessor
1974
8080 Processor- 8 bit microprocessor
1975
Digital research introduce CP/M on OS for 8080
1976
Zilog introduce Z80 a low cost microprocessor
1977
The Apple II Came to use
1978
Intel Introduce 16 bit processor 8086 and 8087
1980
Motorola Introduce the 68000, 16 bit microprocessor
1981
IBM PC born- Speed 4.7 MHz
- 8088 processor
- 64 KB of RAM
- MS- DOS 1.0
5.25" Floppy Disk Drive
1982
Intel Introduce 80286 - 16 bit Processor
- MS-DOS 1.1, Double sided Floppy disk with 360 KB of data
1983
MS-DOS 2.0
- IBM introduce the XT computer with 10MB hard disk drive
1984
The first computer with 80286 chip
- IBM AT
- 20MB Hard Disk
-1.2MB, 5.25" Floppy
- Apple Introduce Macintosh
1985
MS-DOS 3.2 which support Network
1986
Intel introduce 80386 processor- 32 bit processor
1987
MS-DOS 3.3
-1.44MB, 3.5"Floppy Disk Drive
1988
IBM introduce PS/2
Microsoft Develop OS/2
MS-DOS 4.0
1989
Intel introduce 80486 Processor
(2.5 times performance than 80286)
1991
MS-DOS 5.0
1992
Intel introduce 80586 (PI) processor
- Microsoft introduce Windows 3.1
1993
MS-DOS 6.0
1994
Intel develop 100MHz Processor
1995
Windows 95 released
- Internet
-IBM Purchase Lotus
1996
Software developed for Windows 95
1997
Microprocessor speed exceed upto 200 MHz
- CD-ROM & Internet become standard for computer
1998
CPU speed exceed upto 450MHz
- USB Introduce
- windows 98 released
- Microsoft Office 97
1999
Windows Millennium introduce
2000
Processor Speed exceed upto 750 MHz
- Win 2000 Released
-Office 2000 Released
- Broadband developed(Analog Signal) & Windows NT
2001
Processor Speed exceed upto 1 GHz
2002
Windows XP
-Processor speed exceed upto 1.4GHz
2003
Windows 2003 Server
- Office XP
2004
Windows XP Media Center
2005
Processor speed exceed upto 2.6 GHz
2006
Microsoft & Longhorn Will Be Released
Computer Architecture:
Part or devices of computer:
Input Device: The devices which are used to input data to the computer such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera etc.
Processing Unit: That part of the computer which helps to proceeds data or make calculation. Following devices are used on this unit.
o Motherboard
o Processor
o RAM
o Expansion Slot
o Data path/ Data Bus
o Address Path / Address Bus
Output Device: That kind of device which helps to output the data. There are 2 types of output devices.
o Permanent Output- Printer
o Temporary Output- monitor
Hard Ware Component:
o Motherboard
o Processor
o RAM( Memory)
o Expansion Slot & Cards
o Ports and connector
o Secondary storage devices
o Keyboard and Mouse
o Printer and Monitor
MOTHERBOARD
Motherboard is a main circuit board of the computer. Sometimes it is called system board or main board. All of the other components are connected to the motherboard.
Main component of motherboard:
o Memory
o CPU
o Expansion slot and connector
o Ports
o ROM BIOS & CMOS Battery
o IDE Controller
o Power Connector
o IC Chips
Types of Motherboard
1. XT- The first original board used in IBM computer is XT (extended Technology). It was used before 80286 processor. Such as [4004 to 8086]
AT- It was used after 80286 Processor.
Difference between XT and AT Board
XT AT
Data Path 8 bit 16 bit
Configure By Jumper CMOS Battery
Note: Chassis (the plate where motherboard is placed on the casing)
MotherBoard Technology or Architecture
Registor: Registor are memory circuit located inside the CPU that holds data before and after processing. CPU use 64 & 128 bit registor size.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): ALU is the path of CPU that actually process data. ALU takes data from CPU registor, process it and copies it back into the registor before moving onto the next batch of data.
Floating Point Unit (FPU): Floating point unit is a CPU component that handles calculation based on the IEEE standard (Graphic & 3D Games).
Pipe Line: The term pipeline refers to the discrete series of steps that the CPU flows to process the command.
Clock Speed: Clock speed is a measurement of how many cycles a CPU execute per second. One calculation cycle per second is equal to one Hertz.
Multiplier: Clock multipliers are the mechanism the CPU used to run at an even faster speed then the set by the system crystal clock.
Cache Memory: The function of the cache memory is to add communication between CPU and RAM.
L1 cache - The L1 cache memory is the 1st and faster cache and has been build into the CPU since even before Pentium. It is around 8 to 32 KB
L2 cache - L2 cache memory is second cache. It is always larger than L1 & slower then L1. It is 256 KB to 1MB.
North Bridge Chip: The North Bridge Chip is the special memory controller circuit mounted in the motherboard that assists the CPU. The North Bridge Chip connects the CPU to system, RAM and system display controller (i.e. with AGP Card).
South Bridge Chip: South Bridge Chip is the special memory controller circuit mounted in the motherboard that assists the CPU. The North Bridge Chip connects the CPU to the IDE controller, PCI Slots, Ports and Connector.
Front Side Bus: There are two parts on front side bus.
1) Data Bus:
2) Address Bus:
The data bus is also the channel that the CPU uses to access data in RAM and Address bus is the path way that the CPU uses to talk to the North Bridge Chip.
Address space: The number of wire on the address bus defines the maximum amount of RAM that CPU theoretically addressed.
Enclosure Style:
o Full Tower (Support 64 Processor)
o Mid Tower ( support 16 Processor)
o Mini Tower ( Support 2 or 4 Processor)
o Desktop
Board Style:
o Full size AT systemboard (15X12")
o Baby AT systemboard
o ATX systemboard
Feature of the 8088 Motherboard
v 5 pin keyboard connector
v 12 pin AT power connector
v DIPP type CPU pin packet
v 8 bit ISA slot
v DIP switch
v ROM BIOS
v Memory Bank
v 8255 PPI
v 8259 PIC
v 8253/8254 PIT
v 8237/8257 DMA
v 8254 Bus Controller
v 8288 Clock Controller
Feature of 80186 Processor
It is same as 8088 but there are 8254 bus controller and 8288 clock controller. They are emitted.
Feature of 80286 processor
v 5 pin keyboard connector
v 12 pin AT power connector
v 8 bit ISA slot
v 16 bit ISA slot
v RTC (real time clock)
v DIP type co- processor
v ROM BIOS
v 30 pin SIMM slot
v CMOS Battery
v Main Controller Chip (SMP)
Feature of 80386 Processor
SX DX DX2
v 5 pin Keyboard Y Y Y
v 12 pin AT Y Y Y
v 16 bit ISA Slot Y Y Y
v Main Controller Chip Y Y Y
v PLCC/ PQFP type CPU Socket Y Y Y
v 30 Pin SIMM Slot 4 8 8
v External Card 8KB 8KB 8KB
v ROM BIOS Y Y Y
Feature of 80486 Processor
SX DX DX2 DX4
v 5 pin Keyboard Y Y Y Y
v AT Power Connector Y Y Y Y
v 16 bit ISA slot Y Y Y Y
v 16 bit VESA Slot Y N Y Y
v PQFP/PLCC socket Y N N N
v ZIF type socket N Y Y Y
v Ext. cache memory 8KB 8KB 8KB 8KB
v 32 bit PCI Slot N N N N
v 72 pin EDO SIMM slot N N N Y
v ROM BIOS Y Y Y Y
v Main Controller chip Y Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE controller Y Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE connector N N N Y
Onboard IDE Controller:
40 Pin HDD Connector (2)
34 Pin EDD Connector (1)
26 Pin LPT Port (1)
10 Pin Com Port (2)
Feature of 80586 Processor or Pentium I (PI)
Pentium Pro MMX
v CPU socket No 5/6 7 7
v PGA ZIF socket Y Y Y
v 12 pin EDO SIMM 4 4 4
v 168 DIMM No 1 2
v 16 bit ISA Slot Y Y Y
v 32 bit ISA Slot Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE controller Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE connector Y Y Y
v 5 pin Keyboard Y Y Y
v 12 Pin AT connector Y Y Y
Pentium II (P2)
v 16 bit ISA slot
v 32 bit ISA slot
v 64 bit AGP slot
v 12 pin AT power Connector
v 20 pin ATX power connector
v SEC type CPU slot
v Onboard IDE controller and connector
v 20 pin connector (USB)
v Main controller Chip Intel Or VIA
v AGP Controller Chip Intel Or VIA
Chipset
AMD Cyrix
K1, K2 M1, M2, M3, C3
Speed-200 to 650 MHz Speed-233,300 to 333
Socket 7 socket
Speed- 500-333,600-633 socket 370 C3 supports socket 370
SIS 530 Chipset:
v Onboard Display controller Chip
v Onboard Display Connector 15 pin
v Main controller Chip (SIS)
v 16bit ISA slot
v 32 bit PCI slot
v ZIF Type CPU socket7
v Onboard AT and ATX Power Connector
Starting Motherboard Celeron:
v AT and ATX Power Connector
v ISA slot 16 bit
v PCI slot 32 bit
v EDO SIMM Slot
v DIMM Slot
v Socket 370
v
Pentium III Motherboard Intel Chip:
I8io
I8ioc
I8iDE
I8i0ET
Power supply
AT/ ATX
AT/ATX
AT/ATX
AT/ATX
SEC Type CPU
Y
Y
Y
Y
ZIF Type socket
Y
Y
Y
Y
32 bit PCI slot
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard Display Connector
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard Display Controller
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard Sound Controller
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard USB Port
Y
Y
Y
Y
Main Controller
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Bus Speed
66MHz
100MHz
133MHz
133MHz
168 DIMM slot
Y
Y
Y
Y
Pentium IV Motherboard:
I845WV
I845HV
I850GB
I850MV
I850MD
Chip set
Intel 845
Intel 845
Intel 850
Intel 850
Intel 850
RIMM Slot 133MHz
(400,600,800 MHz)
3 slot
3 slot
No
No
No
Power Slot
ATX
ATX
ATX
ATX
ATX
32 bit PCI slot
6
3
5
5
3
AGP Slot
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
ZIF Type socket
478 pin
478 pin
423 pin
478 pin
478pin
Sound Controller Chip
Y
Y
Y
Y
CPU Supportable
1.4 GHz & Above
1.4 GHz
1.3-2.0GHz
1.4 GHz & Above
1.4 GHz & Above
Onboard USB
3Port
3Port
3Port
3Port
3Port
Bus Speed
800MHz
800MHz
800MHz
800MHz
800MHz
Intel 845 Chipset/ Intel 845 (GL/GLY):
v Power Supply = Micro & ATX
v Onboard Display = Intel 845
v Onboard Sound Controller AG97/ C-Media
v SDR RAM Slot
v DDR RAM
v Onboard USB & PS / 2
v Onboard LAN Card - RTC 8100/ 8139
v CNR Slot & AGP Slot
VIA Chip
v Power Supply = Micro & ATX
v Onboard Display = VIA Pro
v Onboard Sound Controller
v SDR RAM Slot
v Onboard USB Port
v ZIF Type CPU 478 socket
v Onboard LAN Card
v CNR Slot & AGP Slot
PROCESSOR
Processor is a brain of computer. Sometimes it is also called CPU (Central Processing Unit) or Microprocessor. The processor proceeds the data before and after the Access.
CPU voltage: Early Pentium runs 5v but modern CPU at 3.3v.
CPU Cooling: CPU package are made from high tech thermal Plastic & ceramic that dissipate heat but they still provides enough relief without help and the cooler helps for this protection.
Heat Sink and Fan: the most common type of CPU cooling system is heat sink and fan assembly.
Liquid cooling system: Liquid CPU cooling system ate similar to a car engine cooling system. The liquid cooling system used only on XEON Processor.
CPU Package:
1. PGA (Pin Grid Array) CPU: This package is flat, square, roughly two inches across with poot ruding contact pins arranged in rows on the bottom side.
The type of ZIF socket that a PGA CPU uses a determined by the numbers of cintact pins on the CPU package.
2. SEC (Single Edge Contact): SEC CPU Package is rectangular roughly five inches wide by two and half inches tall and with all contact pins mounted on the bottom edge. SEC are either fully or partially enclosed in protective plastic cover.
CPU Specification:
v Pentium
v Pentium Pro
v Pentium II
v Pentium III
v Pentium IV
Development Of Processor:
v 8086/8088 - 1978/1979
v 80186-1980
v 80286-1982
v 80386- 1985-1990
v 80486-1990-1994
v 80586 (Pentium) - 1993-1998
v Pentium Pro- 1995-1999
v Pentium MMX - 1997-1999
v Pentium II Celeron- 1998 current
v Pentium III-1999 current
v Pentium IV-2000
Major Processor Package:
Socket
Pins
Volts
CPU
Socket 1
169
5v
486SX
Socket 2
238
5v
486SX/486DX486DX2
Socket 3
237
3v/5v
486SX/486DX486DX2/486DX4
Socket 4
273
5v
60/66 MHz Pentium
Socket 5
320
3v
75/90/100 MHz Pentium
Socket 6
335
3v
486DX4
Socket7
321
2.5/3.3v
75/90/100MHZ
Socket 8
378
2.3v
Pentium Pro
Slot 1
242
N/A
Pentium II / III
Slot 2
330
N/A
Pentium II/ Pentium Xeon
Socket 370
370
N/A
Pentium Celeron
Socket 423
423
N/A
Pentium IV
Socket 478
478
N/A
Pentium IV
Slot A
242
N/A
AMD Athlon
Slot A
462
N/A
AMD Athlon
Intel / Pentium Family:
CPU
Pentium
Pro
P II
P III
P IV
Generation
5th
6th
6th
6th
7th
External speed range
50-60/66-75 MHz
60-66
66-100
100-133
100-133
Internal speed range
60-200/ 166- 200MHz
150-200
233-450
450-1.23GHz
1.3-3.06 GHz
Voltage
5/3.3V
3.1/3.3V
3.3V
3.3V
3.3V
Multiplier
X1-x2/
x2.5-x4.5
X2.5-x3
X3.5-x4.5
X4-x10
X13 & up
L1 cache
16KB/32KB
16KB
32KB
32KB
128KB
L2 Cache
None
256,512,1MB
512KB
256/512KB
256/512KB
L3 Cache
None
None
None
None
None
Package
PGA
PGA
SEC
SEC,PGA
PGA
Socket
Soc 4,5,7
Socket 8
Slot 1
Slot 1, soc 370
Socket 423, 478
Max. add. Bus RAM
4GB
4GB
4GB
4GB
4GB
Intel /Celeron Family:
CPU
Celeron
P II
Celeron
P III
P IV
Generation
6th
6th
7th
External speed range
66-MHz
66-100MHz
100MHz
Internal speed range
256-500MHz
533-700MHz
580MHz-2.4GHz
Voltage
3.3V
3.3V
3.3V
Multiplier
X4-x10.5
X8-x11.5
X8.5-x20.5
L1 cache
32KB
32KB
32KB
L2 Cache
None Early/128KB later
128KB
128KB
L3 Cache
None
None
None
Package
SEC,PGA
PGA
SEC,PGA
Socket
Slot 1, socket 370
Socket 370
Slot1, socket 370
Max. add. Bus RAM
4GB
4GB
4GB
Memory
Note: Primary memory is made from semi conductor and secondary memory is made from magnetic or optical. RAM is also called volatile memory where as Hard Disk, CD and Floppy are Non- Volatile. (Refreshing Each and Every Time)
PROM: PROM is read only memory. It is once programmed and cannot be erased. PROM was used in old type system.
EPROM: It is also read only memory. The data of EPROM can be erased by focusing with the ultra violet rays on it. It takes about 20mins to erase the EPROM. When flashing the entire data of EPROM will be lost. We cannot delete selected memory location. The EPROM chip must be put off the board during the erasing processing. Otherwise the other component near by the chip may be ruined (not functioning or damaged).
EEPROM: It is electrically erasable PROM. We can erase the data of EEPROM in few seconds. We can also delete the related or the selected data from the chip. It is not necessary to put off the chip from the board.
S-RAM: It is fast RAM and it is mainly use for cache memory. The data of a static RAM need not to be refreshed because it can be refreshed automatically. There are mainly two type of cache memory used in CPU. They are L1 & L2 cache memory. L1 is faster than L2 but smaller than L2.
D-RAM: It is slower than S-RAM. It is used as main memory (Primary memory) in CPU. The capacity of D-RAM is greater than S-RAM in Pc but it is slower because D-RAM should be refreshed every time. If the D-RAM did not refresh, the CPU cannot access the D-RAM. The gaping period when the CPU cannot access the D-RAM makes the D-RAM slower. There are mainly two types of D-RAM - Asynchronous
- Synchronous
Asynchronous was used by old system where as modern computer uses synchronous as memory. That is mainly SD-RAM & RD-RAM.
Genetation:
FPM
DIP
30 pins SIMM- Normal SIMM
72 Pin SIMM- Normal SIMM
12 Pin SIMM- EDO SIMM
Note: Normal SIMM RAM = silver color, EDO SIMM RAM = golden color
SIMM Slot : 30 Pin SIMM Slot : 72 Pins
Normal SIMM: EDO SIMM:
i. 30 pin SIMM RAM ii. 72 pin SIMM RAM
iii. 168 pin SDRAM iv. 184 pin DDRAM
v. 184 pin RDRAM
Ports and connectors:
1. Serial Port: -9 Pin
- Com1, com2 (Communication Port i.e. mouse)
- Data transfer rate 1 bit at a time
- Maximum throughout speed 115 kbps (kilo bit / sec)
2. Parallel Port: -25 Pin
- LPT (local printer)
- Data transfer rate 8 bits or 1 byte at a time
- Maximum throughout speed 15, 0000 byte (15 KBPS)
3. Keyboard Port: -5 Pin - DIN
- 6 Pin- Ps/2
4. Mouse Port: -6 Pin- Ps/2
- 9 pin - serial
5. Mouse Port: -15 Pin (CRT) Cathode Ray Tube
- 24 pin (LCD) Liquid Crystal Display, (DVI) Digital Visual Interface
6. Audio Port: - o Speaker
- o out
- o Mic
7. Joystick port - Female DB 15 (game Port)
8. Modem port - RJ 11 (Registered Jack) 4pin
9. Network Interface - RJ 45 8 pin
10. Modern Multifunction Port:
i. USB:- two flavor
USB 1.1 - 12mbps
USB 2.0 - 480mbps
Supportable Device 127
ii. IEEE 1394: fireware (Apple), ilink (sony)
400 mbps upto 800mbps
63 firewire devices support
One set of I / O Address
iii. SCSI: Pin 25, 50, 68
Starting - 5MBPS
Now - 320 MBPS (Only On Laptop)
iv. SATA: Serial Advance TA
Measuring Units:
4 bit = 1 nibble
8 bit = 2 nibble =1 character = 1 byte
1024 byte = 1 kilobyte
1024 KB = 1 Megabyte
1024 MB = 1 gigabyte
1024 GB = 1 Terabyte
1024 TB = 1 Perabyte
1024 PB = 1 Exabyte
Keyboard:
Most common keyboard are:
v 101 key enhanced keyboard
v 104 key windows keyboard
v 82 key Apple standard keyboard
v 108 key Apple Extended Keyboard
Keys:
v Typing key - A to Z
v Number Key - 0 to 9
v Function Key - F1 to F12
v Control key - Alt, Ctrl, Delete, Pageup, Pagedown etc.
Inside Keyboard:
v Position of the key in key matrix
v Amount of bounce and how to filter
v Speed at which to transmit the type-matics
The key matrix is the grid of circuit underneath the key.
When the key posses the key switch against the circuit, there is usually a small amount of vibration between the surfaces, this vibration is known as bounce.
If you continue hold down a key, the processor determines that you wish to send that character repeatedly to the computer this is known as type-matics.
Keyboard Technology:
1. Rubber Dome Mechanism - Flexible rubber dome
2. capacitive Non- mechanism - Spring Loaded
3. metal Contact Mechanism - spring loaded key
4. Membrane Mechanism - It doesn't have separate key but have combined rubber dome.
5. Foam element - Foam
Most common keyboard connector:
5 pin DIN (Deustche Industries Norm) Connector
6 Pin Ps/2
4 Pin USB
Internal Connector (Portable)
Keyboard Cable:
Clock - Green
Data - White
Ground - Blue/ Brown
Volt- yellow / Orange
5 pin keyboard connector:
Pin 1- clock
Pin 2- Data
Pin 3 - reset, not used
Pin 4 - ground
Pin 5 - volt (+ 5)
6 pin PS/2 keyboard connector:
Pin 1- data
Pin 2- not used
Pin 3 - ground
Pin 4 - volt (+5)
Pin 5 - clock
Pin 6 - Not used
Mouse ( Mice)
How mouse function?
1. A ball inside the mouse touches the desktop and rolls when the mouse moves.
2. Two rollers inside the mouse touch the ball. One of the roller is oriented so that it detect the mouse in the X- direction and the other if oriented 90 degree to the first roller so it detect the motion in Y- direction.
3. The roller each connected to a shaft and the first spins a disk with holes in it. When the roller rotated in its shaft a disk spins.
4. On either side of the disk, there is an infrared LED and infrared sensor. The hole in the disk breaks the beam of the light and sensor. The hole in the disk break the beam of the light sent message to the sensor.
5. An onboard processor chip read the pluses from the infrared sensor and turns them into binary data so that the computer understands.
PS/2 connector:
Pin 1- unused
Pin 2- volt (+5)
Pin 3 - unused
Pin 4 - clock
Pin 5 - ground
Pin 6 - data
When ever the mouse moves or the user clicks a button, the mouse sends 3 bytes of data to the computer. The first byte (I.e. 8 bit) contains:
i. left button state (0=off, 1= on)
ii. right button state (0= off, 1= on)
3. 0
4. 1
5. X direction
6. Y direction
7. X overflow
8 Y overflow
The next two byte contains X & Y movement value respectively.
Storage device:
A storage device is the name for several types of storage media and there are also storage media which are not drive like RAM. To be a drive the following things are necessary.
i. A file system can be assigned to them.
ii. They are recognized by OS and they are assigned a drive letter as follows:
Floppy Drive: A, B (FAT, MS-DOS)
Hard Disk: C, D, E, F (FAT, FAT32, NTFS)
CD-ROM: G (CDFS)
CD-R/W: H
Network Drive: I
RAM Drive: M
Removable Storage: J
Storage Principle:
Magnetic Principle: Magnet (Floppy, Hard Disk)
Optical Principle: Lens (CD-ROM, CD-R/W , DVD)
Hard Disk Drive:
A Hard Disk drive contains rigid, disk shaped platters usually constructed of Aluminium or Glass.
A Brief History of Hard Disk:
1. First Hard Disk (1956): IBM's RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) is introduced. It has a capacity of about 5MB, stored on 50.24" disk. Its arial density is 2,000 bits / square inch and its data throughout 8800 bits / second.
2. First Air Bearing head (1962): IBM's Model 1301 with the capacity of 28 MB.
3. First Removable Disk Drive (1965): IBM's Model 2310 is the first removable Disk.
4. First Ferrite Head (1966): IBM's model 2314 is the first Hard Disk that use ferrite core head.
5. First 5.25" Form Factor Disk (1980): Seagate ST-506 is the first drive with 5.25" form factor which was used on old pieces.
6. First 3.5" compactable (1983): Rodine introduce the RO352, the first 3.5" compactable Hard Disk.
Hard Disk Geometry
Different terms and technology used in Hard Disk:
i. Speed: Speed is a rotation of spindal motor which ca rotates 3600 revolution / min or servo control motor use to maintain a constant or accurate rotation rate. That is a sensor in the disk drive constantly monitors how fast the drive spines. Modern Hard Disk has spins at 5400 to 7200 Rpm upto 10,000 Rpm.
ii. Latency: This term describes how long after the command to read or write from the Hard Disk rotates to locate the specific data needed. A modern drive with a 5400 Rpm speed achieves a latency of 506 milliseconds.
iii. Platters: The circular disk in which the digital data is stored in Magnetic domains is termed as Platter. The number of platter onside a Hard Disk influence the speed at which data stored on the drive can be found.
iv. Substrate: Substrate is the material on which magnetic materials are coated form platters. The most common substrate material is Aluminium. A near alternative is Glass.
v. Track: One complete cycle of the platter.
vi. Cylinder: The vertical portion of he each track in different platters is known as cylinder.
vii. Sector: The small arch section of the track is known as sector. It can hold 512byte of data. It is the smallest unit of data storage
Read / Write mechanism:
Each platter has two read / write head. The read/ write head moves synchronously by head actuator. The hard disk data can only be attained via one head at a time. The read / write head has metal coil wounded in iron rod.
If a current is applied to a coil, head will become magnetic. This magnetism will orient the micro magnetic in the track which is write mode.
If the head moves along the track without current applied to the coil, it will sense micro magnetic in the track. This magnetism will induce a current in the coil. These flashes of current represent the data on the disk. This is read mode. These microscopic magnets called domain.
Addressing: method of read / write data
i. CHS (Cylinder Head Sector) [1024cylnder - 8 GB]
ii. LBA (logical Block Address)
Cylinder - 0 to 1024
Head - 0 to 16
Sector-0
File system:
File system helps to store data in the Hard Disk by sequential order. To store data on the Hard Disk the file system breaks down the Hard Disk on the group cluster. Each cluster can be drawn any where on the Hard Disk.
i. FAT System (File Allocated Table) [FAT 12 & 16]
The standard file system recognized by DOS, Win9X & Win NT is FAT. FAT partition support file name upto 11 character under DOS & 255 character on the windows. It can format maximum 2 GB of partition. FAT system use 12-16 bit number clustering size to store the data.
ii. FAT 32:
An optional file system supported by windows95, OSR 2, Win 96, Win NT, Win 2000 & beyond is FAT 32. FAT 32 uses 32 bit number to identify clustering size. FAT 32 support maximum 2 TB of partition.
iii. NTFS (New Technology File System)
The native file system for Win NT, Win 2000 and beyond is NTFS. It supports 256 characters for the file name. It can support maximum 16 exabyte partition. The main feature of the NTFS file system is file and folder level security.
Format
Format is the process of changing the logical structure of Hard Disk. We can format Hard Disk in two ways:
Low level: It is actually used by manufacturer or using third party i.e. software.
High Level: It is done by file system while installing the OS.
Interface:
Interface provider communication channel between drives and the controller of the motherboard. The primary job of the controller or the interface is to transfer and transmit or receive data from drive.
There are 3 types of Interface:
IDE (Integrated Device Electronic-40 pin)
It is the generic term applied to any drive with an integrated disk controller. We can connect maximum four devices (i.e. Hard Disk or CD-ROM) in this interface
IDE 1: Primary
IDE 2: Secondary
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
SCSI is not a disk interface but a system level interface. It supports 8 or 16 devices. It may have 25, 25 or 68 pins.
ATAPI (Advance Technology Attachment Package Interface)
This technology is used only on optical medium i.e. CD, DVD. Combo drive. The file system of ATAPI is CDFS and have 40pins
SATA (Serial Advance Technology Attachment)
CD Drive
CD-ROM (Compactable Disc Read Only Memory)
It is a read only memory optical storage medium capable of holding up to 700MB of data. CD /R and CD R/W are expanding the compact disc capabilities by making them variable a new technology such as DVD’s.
In 1978 Sony and Phillips companies jointly introduced audio CD that was 12 inches Disc. In 1982 the companies announced the standard 4.72 inch format i.e. 120mm diameter, 15mm hole in center and 1.2mm thick.
CD technology:
Most of CD consists of an injected molded piece of clear polycarbonate plastic. During manufacturing the plastic is impressed with microscopic bumps arranged as a single continuous extremely long spiral track of data. Once the clear piece of polycarbonate is formed. A thin reflecting aluminium layer is spotted onto the disk covering the bumps. Then a thin acrylic layer is sprayed over the aluminium to perfect it. The label then printed on the acrylic layer.
You will after read ‘Pits’ on a CD instead of bumps. They appear on pits in the aluminium site but on the side the lacer reads, they are bumps.
The incredible small dimension of bumps makes the spiral track on a CD extremely long. The spiral track of the data is about 5 km long.
Construction and operation:
The CD- ROM is a optical storage device and use circular spinning media. The big different is that the way of information is recordable on the media and the way that is read from the media is same.
Optical Head Assembly:
CD-ROM is read only memory or device and cannot be written. CD Drive cannot use head in the conventional sense. The head is a lens sometimes called a pick up that moves from inside to outside of the surface of the CD – RON disc accessing the different as disc spins.
Operation:
Drive Motor: A drive motor spins the disc. The drive motors is preciously control and rotate between 200 - 500 Rpm depending on which track being read.
Laser and Lens: A laser and lens system focus on the disc and read on bumps.
Tracking Motor: A tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly so that the laser beam can flow the spindle track.
Spindle motor: The spindle motor of a standard CD-ROM is very different from Hard Disk floppy disk drive because it doesn't spin at a constant speed. The speed of the drive depends on what part of the disk is being read.
Data Format: PHOTOCOPY
CD Format:
Single Session: In this session once we write the data we cannot rewrite next time if there is remaining space.
Multi Session: In this session we can re- write the data if blank space is remain.
Different CD- Format:
i. CD-DA (Compact Disc Digital Audio): First CD Format was audio CD. This CD use simple rate of 44.1 KHz and 16 bit inside. Audio Data is stored on the disc on blocks. Each block holds 2,352 bytes data.
ii. CD-ROM:
Model 1: This CD format broken down the size of data 2,352 into 2048 byte, remaining 304 byte is used for error detection.
Model 2: It uses 2048 bytes data in a single block and omitted the 304 byte.
iii. Video - CD: It supports for a special CD- format for the storing of compressed video information. Through the use of "Mpeg" format it is possible to store 74 min of full motion video in the same space of audio.
iv. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): DVD use the same form factor as CD-ROM. DVD players uses smaller, thinner infrared that can be read more packet data at a time. The logical format is different in DVD and it can store 7 times of data in one side of the compact disc.
v. CD-R: CD-R drives are especial drive which is very different then a standard CD player because it must include a special laser. The laser is key component from the drive perspective because it burns out data or image into the CD-R drive. It uses ATAPI interface.
vi. CD-R/W: It is new technology which allows CD to be both written and re-written. It is similar to CD-R drive and different thing is the laser
Floppy Disk Drive:
Floppy disk drive is data exchange media for Pc and most popular backup system. IBM invented the floppy disk drive in 1967, which was 8" in size. When IBM
Personal developed in 1981 its size decreased in 5.25". Today's most popular floppy is 3.5" with 1.44 MB capacity.
Role of Floppy Disk Drive:
v Data Transfer
v Small file storage and backup
v Software installation and driver update
Floppy Disk Drive Construction and Operation:
Read / Write Head Media:
The read / write head on the floppy disk are used to convert binary data to electromagnetic pulses, when writing to the disk and the reverse when reading.
Floppy disk uses the ferrite style head. The head is an iron core with wire wrapped around it to form a controllable electromagnet. The floppy drive is a contact recording technology, it mean head directly contact the disk media, instead of using floating head.
Floppy disk drive spins typically 300-600 Rpm. The magnetic oxide and dirt on the head makes it be periodically cleaned. The floppy disk also used a special design that incorporates two erase heads in addition to read / write. These are called ' Tunnet Erase Head'.
Head Actuator:
Head Actuator is device that physically positions the read / writes head over the current track on the surface of the disk. Floppy disk generally has 80 tracks pre side. Stopper motor drives the actuator as the stopper motor turns it moves through various stop position. Each one of these position defines a track on the surface of the disk. The head actuator on a floppy disk are very slow which their seek time much higher.
Spindle Motor:
The spindle motor drives the floppy disk. When disk is inserted, clamps come down on the middle of the disk to motor, which turn disk as it spins. The speed of spindle motor depends on the type of floppy drive.
Floppy Disk
Size & capacity
360KB
5.25"
1.2MB
5.25"
720KB
3.5"
1.44MB
3.5"
2.88MB
3.5"
Spindle speed
300Rpm
360 Rpm
300 Rpm
300 Rpm
300 Rpm
Disk Change Sensor:
Modern floppy drives incorporate a especial sensor and signal on the floppy cable that work in conjunction to tell the floppy controller when a disk is ejected and a new one is inserted. This signal is used for performance reason as keeping track of when the disk is changed.
Logic Board:
The floppy disk contains an integrated logic board that act as the drive controller. This controls the read / writes head, spindle motor, head actuator and other component. The circuit on this board also talks to the floppy disk controller over the floppy interface.
Media Density:
The density of the disk surface refers to the amount of data that can be stored in a given amount of space. This is a function of two basic factors:
v How many tracks can be fit on disk (track density)
v How many bits can be fit on each track (bit density)
Density
Characteristics
360KB
5.25"
1.2MB
5.25"
720KB
3.5"
1.44MB
3.5"
2.88MB
3.5"
Track Density
48
96
135
135
135
Bit Density
8876
9869
8713
17434
34868
Density Name
Double Density (DD)
High Density
(HD)
Double Density (DD
High
Density
(HD)
Extra High Density
(ED)
Data Encoding and Decoding:
Data encoding is the process of converting binary information into magnetic pulses that can be stored on the magnetic surface of disk. Floppy disk uses the MFM (Modify Frequency Modulation) for encoding.
Data decoding is the process of converting magnetic pulses into binary information.
Low Level & high Level Format:
Low level format involves the creation of the actual structure of on the surface of the media that are used to hold data. This means recording the tracks and marking the start of each sector on each track is called low level formatting.
The next level or step is high level format. In this process it creates the logical structure of the disk. Such as File Allocated Table (FAT), Root Directory.
Floppy Disk Technology:
Floppy Disk:
The term geometry refers to the organization of the structure. It refers to the numbers of disk surface. The number of track per surface and number of track per sector.
Geometry Specification
360KB
5.25"
1.2MB
5.25"
720KB
3.5"
1.44MB
3.5"
2.88MB
3.5"
Track
40
80
80
80
80
Sector per track
9
15
9
18
36
Total sector per disk
720
2400
1440
2880
5760
Note: Floppy use 512 byte per sector.
Annexure:
ZIF: Zero Intersection Force
PGA: Pin Grid Array
CPU: Central Processing Unit
DMA: Directory Memory Access
ROM BIOS: Read Only Memory Basic Input Output System
CMOS: Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
AGP: Acceleration Graphical Port
PCI: Peripheral Component Interface
ISA: Industry Standard Architecture
IDE: Integrated Device Electronic / Integrated Digital Electrical
FPU: Floating Point Unit
ALU: Arithmetic Logical Unit
PLCC: Pin less Chip Carrier
PQFC: Plastic Quad Flat Pack
EDO: Extended Data Output
VESA: Very Extended Standard Architecture
DIMM: Dual Inline Memory Module
RIMM: Rambus Inline Memory Module
RAM: Random Access Memory
SRAM: Static Random Access Memory
DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory
FPM: Fast Page Mode
SIMM: Single Inline Memory Module
SD-RAM: Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
RD-RAM: Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
V- RAM: Video Random Access Memory
W- RAM: Window Random Access Memory
ROM: Read Only Memory
PROM- Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
SCSI: Small Computer System Interface
EIDE: Enhanced Integrated Device Electronic
ATAPT: Advance Technology Attachment Package Interface
SATA: Serial Advance Technology Attachment
UDMA: Ultra Dynamic Memory Access
Electronic Electric
(DC) (AC)
Electronic is the science which study about the behavior of electrons. Electronic is a sub particle of atom.
Atom: Atom is a smallest particle of element.
Element: Element is a thing that cannot be friction and chemically or physically charge.
Copper: Force towards the center (Central Force)
Attraction between negative & positive
If the number of positively charge portion of highly then the positively energy or charge or charge will be generate.
Silver- Cupper
Gold- Aluminium
EMF (Electro Motive Force)
Current: Current is flow of electronic per unit time. It is measure in amp. The symbol of current is & denoted by I.
I=V/R
If the voltage is increased the current is increased and voltage is decreased the current is decreased. But resistance always decreases the current.
Types of Current
AC- Alternative Current
Magnitude and direction is change in per period.
DC- Direct Current
Magnitude and direction is not change in per period is called DC.
Resistor:
Resistor is a passive electronic component that offers a specific offers a specific amount of electrical resistance to flow the current when connect in a circuit. We measure resistance in "ohm" and denoted by
The symbol of resistor is Ω
V=RI
Resistance - Property of substance due to which it appose the flow of charge or flow of current.
Types of Resistor
o Fixed
o Variable
o Semi Variable
How to calculate the resistance value?
Color
Value
Multiplier(10s)
Multiplier(100)
Black
0
10 =1
100 =
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange
3
Yellow
4
Green
5
Blue
6
Violet
7
Grey
8
White
9
Tolerance:
Gold = ± 5%
Silver = ± 10% and tolerance is always fixed.
3rd Band is multiplier
4th Band is tolerance
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Red Ora Red Gold
2 3 2 5%
23X 100 ± 5%
2300 ± 5% of 2300
2300 ±115
2300-115 =2185
2300+115=2415
The resistance value of resistor is 2185 Ω to 2415 Ω
Resistor in Network
When two resistors are connected in series then,
1. Current across each resistor is same
I.e. I=I1=I2
2. V=V1+V2
If Rc be the combined resistance of this network,
Then
Rc= R1+R2
Since, We know from (2)
V=V1+V2
Or, IR=I1R1 + I2R2 (V=IR)
Or, IR=IR1+ IR2 (From 1)
Or, IR = I(R1+ R2)
R=R1+R2
When two resistors are connected in parallel, then
1. Volt across the circuit is same i.e. V=V1=V2
2. I= I1+ I2
I/Rc= 1/R1+ 1/ R2
From 2
I= I1+ I2
Or, V/R= V1/R1+ V2/R2
Or, V/R= V/R1+ V/R2
Or, V (1/R)= V(1/R1)+ V(1/R2)
1/R= 1/R1+ 1/R2
Capacitor
Capacitor is passive electronic component used to store charge in an electrical circuit. A capacitor functions like a battery.
A basic capacitor is made up of two conductors separated by an insulator dielectrical. The dielectric can be made of paper, plastic, ceramic, glass, vacuum or non conductive material.
Capacitor electron storing ability is called capacities and it is measured of Farad. One farad is actually a huge amount of charge i.e. 6, 28, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000 electrons. So we usually rate capacitor in microfarads (mf). It is denoted by
Types of capacitor:
- Non - Polarized fixed capacitor:
- Polarized fixed Capacitor:
Types of capacitor as dielectric use:
- Paper Capacitor: The dielectric used in paper capacitor is paper. The paper capacitors are used for high voltage & high discharge current application.
- Plastic Film Capacitor: The dielectric used in plastic film capacitor. This type of capacitor are used for power supply application (i.e. SMPS)
- Ceramic Capacitor: Ceramic capacitor use mixture of complex fitanate compounds as dielectric and Barium fitanate.
- Electrolyte Capacitor: The electrolytic capacitor use some form of electrolyte as the dielectric. It is aluminium oxide in case of aluminium electrolyte capacitor and tantalum oxide in case of tantalum electrolytic.
- Oil filled capacitor: In this category there are oil filled capacitor for AC application & DC application. Ac oil filled capacitor use oil paper as dielectric and DC oil filled capacitor use paper film combination as dielectric.
DC- Filtering voltage multiplication
- Air dielectrical capacitor: This type of capacitor use vacuum or non conductive material as dielectric.
Function of capacitor:
o Charge storing
o Charge filtering
o Charge regulating
Transistor:
A transistor may be thought of as a solid state of device that is formed when two P-N junction diodes are tied together. A transistor is constructed from germanium & silicon semi conductor material.
A semi conductor is a material that likes some where between the conductor and insulator. The typical value of conductivity (i.e. semi conductor's value is 100 ohm/cm3)
Physical:
Symbol:
Function of transistor:
o Store electric charge
o Boot up the electrical signal
o Switching
Types of transistor:
Emitter Base Collector
Emitter Base Collector
Diode:
Diode is a combination of positive and negative type of semi conductor. The process of conversion from AC into DC is known as rectification.
Physical:
Symbol:
Types of Diode:
o Rectifier Diode(Black) (AC-DC)
o Zener Diode (RED) High Wattage
o Light Emitting Diode (Red) keyboard [ Provide Light Signal]
o Infrared Diode - Inside Mouse
o Laser Diode - Optical Mouse
o Photo Diode - CD- ROM lens Head
Transformer:
Transformer is an electrical device which transforms electrical voltage (AC) value. One value to another value. It consists of two coil one is primary and another is secondary.
Primary: In
Secondary: Out
Physical:
Symbol:
Function of transformer:
o Step up and step down of voltage
o AC in and AC out
IC Chips:
IC Chip is constructed by millions of resistor, transistor, capacitor or integrated circuit is combination of two or more than two circuit to perform a single task.
Physical
Types of IC Chips:
a) On the basis of Edge:
Single Edge Contact:
Double Edge Contact:
QUAD IC:
b) On the basis of function:
1. Analog IC Chips (Liner)
o Signals through wave like phone, Internet
o Store only analog information
2. Digital IC Chips:
o Digital IC Chips contains a logic gate which converts the wave or analog information into binary value ( i.e. 1s or 0s [ On & Off Beat] format.
Power supply
SMPS is an electronic device which input AC and Output DC.
Block Diagram OF SMPS
AC
AC DC
AC
DC
DC
Types of SMPS
- AT( Advanced Technology)
- ATX (Extended Advanced Technology)
AT ATX
1. Pin 12 pin (Double) 20 pins (single)
2. Message It is now safe to turn off…. No message
3. Transformer 2 3
Multimeter:
A multimeter measures the current volt meter measures the potential difference between two points and meter the resistance. The multimeter do all of the above function.
We can say that multimeter is an instrument that use to measure amp.(i.e. AC & DC), resistance (i.e. Continue)
Types of multimeter
- Analog
- Digital
Hardware
What is computer?
Computer is an electronic device which takes raw data, process it and gives a meaningful result. Computer contains three parts.
o Output device
o Input device
o Processing Unit
Types of Computer:
1. On the Basis of Manufacturer
o IBM-1981
o IBM PC
o IBM Compatible
- Dell
-Compaq
-Hp
-Apple Macintosh
-Toshiba
2. On the basis of size:
i. Super Computer( have analog and digital chip - mainly used for research purpose)
ii. Mainframe(Have 1 CPU, 100 user) for data entry
iii. Mini Computer
iv. Micro computer
3. On the Basis Of Function
i. Digital Computer
ii. Analog Computer
iii. Hybrid Computer
History of computer
Development of computer
1. The Abacus: The Abacus is the first computer which was used to calculate mathematical problem i.e. addition, subtraction, division and multiplication. It was developed around 100 AD.
2. The Analytical Engine: The first mechanical computer was the analytical engine developed by Charles Babbage in London between 1822 and 1871. It was designed to receive instruction from punch card makes calculation with aid of memory bank and print out solution of math problem.
3. The First Electrical Computer: The first electrical computer was developed on January 8, 1889 by Dr. Hermon Hollerith, using punch cards containing information submitted by respondent to census questionnaire. It was developed for U.S. Census Beuro to compute result of the 1890.
4. The Digital Electronic Computer: The first computer was ABC (Atanasoft Berry Computer). It was developed by John Atanasoft and Clifford Berry between 1939 & 1942. This machine utilized the concept of binary arithmetic, parallel processing, separate memory and computer function. When completion its weight was 750 pounds and could store in 3000 bits (4KB) of data.
5. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator & Computer): It was another digital computer. It was completed in 1945 and designed for to prepare firing and bombing tables for the U.S. Army and Navy. It consisted 30 separate units. It's weigh was 30 tons and used 19000 vacuum tubes, 1500 relays hundred of thousand resistor, capacitor, inductors. It requires 200 kilowatts to operate.
Another digital computer was Colossus I, built at secret British Government Research. It was designed for a single purpose i.e. code breaking.
The 1960's and 1970's is the golden era for the mainframe computer.
Development of computer:
YEAR
EVENT
1971
4004 processor
-first 4 bit processor
- introduce by Intel
- clock speed upto 1 MHz
1972
8008 processor- first 8 bit microprocessor
1974
8080 Processor- 8 bit microprocessor
1975
Digital research introduce CP/M on OS for 8080
1976
Zilog introduce Z80 a low cost microprocessor
1977
The Apple II Came to use
1978
Intel Introduce 16 bit processor 8086 and 8087
1980
Motorola Introduce the 68000, 16 bit microprocessor
1981
IBM PC born- Speed 4.7 MHz
- 8088 processor
- 64 KB of RAM
- MS- DOS 1.0
5.25" Floppy Disk Drive
1982
Intel Introduce 80286 - 16 bit Processor
- MS-DOS 1.1, Double sided Floppy disk with 360 KB of data
1983
MS-DOS 2.0
- IBM introduce the XT computer with 10MB hard disk drive
1984
The first computer with 80286 chip
- IBM AT
- 20MB Hard Disk
-1.2MB, 5.25" Floppy
- Apple Introduce Macintosh
1985
MS-DOS 3.2 which support Network
1986
Intel introduce 80386 processor- 32 bit processor
1987
MS-DOS 3.3
-1.44MB, 3.5"Floppy Disk Drive
1988
IBM introduce PS/2
Microsoft Develop OS/2
MS-DOS 4.0
1989
Intel introduce 80486 Processor
(2.5 times performance than 80286)
1991
MS-DOS 5.0
1992
Intel introduce 80586 (PI) processor
- Microsoft introduce Windows 3.1
1993
MS-DOS 6.0
1994
Intel develop 100MHz Processor
1995
Windows 95 released
- Internet
-IBM Purchase Lotus
1996
Software developed for Windows 95
1997
Microprocessor speed exceed upto 200 MHz
- CD-ROM & Internet become standard for computer
1998
CPU speed exceed upto 450MHz
- USB Introduce
- windows 98 released
- Microsoft Office 97
1999
Windows Millennium introduce
2000
Processor Speed exceed upto 750 MHz
- Win 2000 Released
-Office 2000 Released
- Broadband developed(Analog Signal) & Windows NT
2001
Processor Speed exceed upto 1 GHz
2002
Windows XP
-Processor speed exceed upto 1.4GHz
2003
Windows 2003 Server
- Office XP
2004
Windows XP Media Center
2005
Processor speed exceed upto 2.6 GHz
2006
Microsoft & Longhorn Will Be Released
Computer Architecture:
Part or devices of computer:
Input Device: The devices which are used to input data to the computer such as keyboard, mouse, scanner, digital camera etc.
Processing Unit: That part of the computer which helps to proceeds data or make calculation. Following devices are used on this unit.
o Motherboard
o Processor
o RAM
o Expansion Slot
o Data path/ Data Bus
o Address Path / Address Bus
Output Device: That kind of device which helps to output the data. There are 2 types of output devices.
o Permanent Output- Printer
o Temporary Output- monitor
Hard Ware Component:
o Motherboard
o Processor
o RAM( Memory)
o Expansion Slot & Cards
o Ports and connector
o Secondary storage devices
o Keyboard and Mouse
o Printer and Monitor
MOTHERBOARD
Motherboard is a main circuit board of the computer. Sometimes it is called system board or main board. All of the other components are connected to the motherboard.
Main component of motherboard:
o Memory
o CPU
o Expansion slot and connector
o Ports
o ROM BIOS & CMOS Battery
o IDE Controller
o Power Connector
o IC Chips
Types of Motherboard
1. XT- The first original board used in IBM computer is XT (extended Technology). It was used before 80286 processor. Such as [4004 to 8086]
AT- It was used after 80286 Processor.
Difference between XT and AT Board
XT AT
Data Path 8 bit 16 bit
Configure By Jumper CMOS Battery
Note: Chassis (the plate where motherboard is placed on the casing)
MotherBoard Technology or Architecture
Registor: Registor are memory circuit located inside the CPU that holds data before and after processing. CPU use 64 & 128 bit registor size.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): ALU is the path of CPU that actually process data. ALU takes data from CPU registor, process it and copies it back into the registor before moving onto the next batch of data.
Floating Point Unit (FPU): Floating point unit is a CPU component that handles calculation based on the IEEE standard (Graphic & 3D Games).
Pipe Line: The term pipeline refers to the discrete series of steps that the CPU flows to process the command.
Clock Speed: Clock speed is a measurement of how many cycles a CPU execute per second. One calculation cycle per second is equal to one Hertz.
Multiplier: Clock multipliers are the mechanism the CPU used to run at an even faster speed then the set by the system crystal clock.
Cache Memory: The function of the cache memory is to add communication between CPU and RAM.
L1 cache - The L1 cache memory is the 1st and faster cache and has been build into the CPU since even before Pentium. It is around 8 to 32 KB
L2 cache - L2 cache memory is second cache. It is always larger than L1 & slower then L1. It is 256 KB to 1MB.
North Bridge Chip: The North Bridge Chip is the special memory controller circuit mounted in the motherboard that assists the CPU. The North Bridge Chip connects the CPU to system, RAM and system display controller (i.e. with AGP Card).
South Bridge Chip: South Bridge Chip is the special memory controller circuit mounted in the motherboard that assists the CPU. The North Bridge Chip connects the CPU to the IDE controller, PCI Slots, Ports and Connector.
Front Side Bus: There are two parts on front side bus.
1) Data Bus:
2) Address Bus:
The data bus is also the channel that the CPU uses to access data in RAM and Address bus is the path way that the CPU uses to talk to the North Bridge Chip.
Address space: The number of wire on the address bus defines the maximum amount of RAM that CPU theoretically addressed.
Enclosure Style:
o Full Tower (Support 64 Processor)
o Mid Tower ( support 16 Processor)
o Mini Tower ( Support 2 or 4 Processor)
o Desktop
Board Style:
o Full size AT systemboard (15X12")
o Baby AT systemboard
o ATX systemboard
Feature of the 8088 Motherboard
v 5 pin keyboard connector
v 12 pin AT power connector
v DIPP type CPU pin packet
v 8 bit ISA slot
v DIP switch
v ROM BIOS
v Memory Bank
v 8255 PPI
v 8259 PIC
v 8253/8254 PIT
v 8237/8257 DMA
v 8254 Bus Controller
v 8288 Clock Controller
Feature of 80186 Processor
It is same as 8088 but there are 8254 bus controller and 8288 clock controller. They are emitted.
Feature of 80286 processor
v 5 pin keyboard connector
v 12 pin AT power connector
v 8 bit ISA slot
v 16 bit ISA slot
v RTC (real time clock)
v DIP type co- processor
v ROM BIOS
v 30 pin SIMM slot
v CMOS Battery
v Main Controller Chip (SMP)
Feature of 80386 Processor
SX DX DX2
v 5 pin Keyboard Y Y Y
v 12 pin AT Y Y Y
v 16 bit ISA Slot Y Y Y
v Main Controller Chip Y Y Y
v PLCC/ PQFP type CPU Socket Y Y Y
v 30 Pin SIMM Slot 4 8 8
v External Card 8KB 8KB 8KB
v ROM BIOS Y Y Y
Feature of 80486 Processor
SX DX DX2 DX4
v 5 pin Keyboard Y Y Y Y
v AT Power Connector Y Y Y Y
v 16 bit ISA slot Y Y Y Y
v 16 bit VESA Slot Y N Y Y
v PQFP/PLCC socket Y N N N
v ZIF type socket N Y Y Y
v Ext. cache memory 8KB 8KB 8KB 8KB
v 32 bit PCI Slot N N N N
v 72 pin EDO SIMM slot N N N Y
v ROM BIOS Y Y Y Y
v Main Controller chip Y Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE controller Y Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE connector N N N Y
Onboard IDE Controller:
40 Pin HDD Connector (2)
34 Pin EDD Connector (1)
26 Pin LPT Port (1)
10 Pin Com Port (2)
Feature of 80586 Processor or Pentium I (PI)
Pentium Pro MMX
v CPU socket No 5/6 7 7
v PGA ZIF socket Y Y Y
v 12 pin EDO SIMM 4 4 4
v 168 DIMM No 1 2
v 16 bit ISA Slot Y Y Y
v 32 bit ISA Slot Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE controller Y Y Y
v Onboard IDE connector Y Y Y
v 5 pin Keyboard Y Y Y
v 12 Pin AT connector Y Y Y
Pentium II (P2)
v 16 bit ISA slot
v 32 bit ISA slot
v 64 bit AGP slot
v 12 pin AT power Connector
v 20 pin ATX power connector
v SEC type CPU slot
v Onboard IDE controller and connector
v 20 pin connector (USB)
v Main controller Chip Intel Or VIA
v AGP Controller Chip Intel Or VIA
Chipset
AMD Cyrix
K1, K2 M1, M2, M3, C3
Speed-200 to 650 MHz Speed-233,300 to 333
Socket 7 socket
Speed- 500-333,600-633 socket 370 C3 supports socket 370
SIS 530 Chipset:
v Onboard Display controller Chip
v Onboard Display Connector 15 pin
v Main controller Chip (SIS)
v 16bit ISA slot
v 32 bit PCI slot
v ZIF Type CPU socket7
v Onboard AT and ATX Power Connector
Starting Motherboard Celeron:
v AT and ATX Power Connector
v ISA slot 16 bit
v PCI slot 32 bit
v EDO SIMM Slot
v DIMM Slot
v Socket 370
v
Pentium III Motherboard Intel Chip:
I8io
I8ioc
I8iDE
I8i0ET
Power supply
AT/ ATX
AT/ATX
AT/ATX
AT/ATX
SEC Type CPU
Y
Y
Y
Y
ZIF Type socket
Y
Y
Y
Y
32 bit PCI slot
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard Display Connector
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard Display Controller
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard Sound Controller
Y
Y
Y
Y
Onboard USB Port
Y
Y
Y
Y
Main Controller
Intel
Intel
Intel
Intel
Bus Speed
66MHz
100MHz
133MHz
133MHz
168 DIMM slot
Y
Y
Y
Y
Pentium IV Motherboard:
I845WV
I845HV
I850GB
I850MV
I850MD
Chip set
Intel 845
Intel 845
Intel 850
Intel 850
Intel 850
RIMM Slot 133MHz
(400,600,800 MHz)
3 slot
3 slot
No
No
No
Power Slot
ATX
ATX
ATX
ATX
ATX
32 bit PCI slot
6
3
5
5
3
AGP Slot
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
ZIF Type socket
478 pin
478 pin
423 pin
478 pin
478pin
Sound Controller Chip
Y
Y
Y
Y
CPU Supportable
1.4 GHz & Above
1.4 GHz
1.3-2.0GHz
1.4 GHz & Above
1.4 GHz & Above
Onboard USB
3Port
3Port
3Port
3Port
3Port
Bus Speed
800MHz
800MHz
800MHz
800MHz
800MHz
Intel 845 Chipset/ Intel 845 (GL/GLY):
v Power Supply = Micro & ATX
v Onboard Display = Intel 845
v Onboard Sound Controller AG97/ C-Media
v SDR RAM Slot
v DDR RAM
v Onboard USB & PS / 2
v Onboard LAN Card - RTC 8100/ 8139
v CNR Slot & AGP Slot
VIA Chip
v Power Supply = Micro & ATX
v Onboard Display = VIA Pro
v Onboard Sound Controller
v SDR RAM Slot
v Onboard USB Port
v ZIF Type CPU 478 socket
v Onboard LAN Card
v CNR Slot & AGP Slot
PROCESSOR
Processor is a brain of computer. Sometimes it is also called CPU (Central Processing Unit) or Microprocessor. The processor proceeds the data before and after the Access.
CPU voltage: Early Pentium runs 5v but modern CPU at 3.3v.
CPU Cooling: CPU package are made from high tech thermal Plastic & ceramic that dissipate heat but they still provides enough relief without help and the cooler helps for this protection.
Heat Sink and Fan: the most common type of CPU cooling system is heat sink and fan assembly.
Liquid cooling system: Liquid CPU cooling system ate similar to a car engine cooling system. The liquid cooling system used only on XEON Processor.
CPU Package:
1. PGA (Pin Grid Array) CPU: This package is flat, square, roughly two inches across with poot ruding contact pins arranged in rows on the bottom side.
The type of ZIF socket that a PGA CPU uses a determined by the numbers of cintact pins on the CPU package.
2. SEC (Single Edge Contact): SEC CPU Package is rectangular roughly five inches wide by two and half inches tall and with all contact pins mounted on the bottom edge. SEC are either fully or partially enclosed in protective plastic cover.
CPU Specification:
v Pentium
v Pentium Pro
v Pentium II
v Pentium III
v Pentium IV
Development Of Processor:
v 8086/8088 - 1978/1979
v 80186-1980
v 80286-1982
v 80386- 1985-1990
v 80486-1990-1994
v 80586 (Pentium) - 1993-1998
v Pentium Pro- 1995-1999
v Pentium MMX - 1997-1999
v Pentium II Celeron- 1998 current
v Pentium III-1999 current
v Pentium IV-2000
Major Processor Package:
Socket
Pins
Volts
CPU
Socket 1
169
5v
486SX
Socket 2
238
5v
486SX/486DX486DX2
Socket 3
237
3v/5v
486SX/486DX486DX2/486DX4
Socket 4
273
5v
60/66 MHz Pentium
Socket 5
320
3v
75/90/100 MHz Pentium
Socket 6
335
3v
486DX4
Socket7
321
2.5/3.3v
75/90/100MHZ
Socket 8
378
2.3v
Pentium Pro
Slot 1
242
N/A
Pentium II / III
Slot 2
330
N/A
Pentium II/ Pentium Xeon
Socket 370
370
N/A
Pentium Celeron
Socket 423
423
N/A
Pentium IV
Socket 478
478
N/A
Pentium IV
Slot A
242
N/A
AMD Athlon
Slot A
462
N/A
AMD Athlon
Intel / Pentium Family:
CPU
Pentium
Pro
P II
P III
P IV
Generation
5th
6th
6th
6th
7th
External speed range
50-60/66-75 MHz
60-66
66-100
100-133
100-133
Internal speed range
60-200/ 166- 200MHz
150-200
233-450
450-1.23GHz
1.3-3.06 GHz
Voltage
5/3.3V
3.1/3.3V
3.3V
3.3V
3.3V
Multiplier
X1-x2/
x2.5-x4.5
X2.5-x3
X3.5-x4.5
X4-x10
X13 & up
L1 cache
16KB/32KB
16KB
32KB
32KB
128KB
L2 Cache
None
256,512,1MB
512KB
256/512KB
256/512KB
L3 Cache
None
None
None
None
None
Package
PGA
PGA
SEC
SEC,PGA
PGA
Socket
Soc 4,5,7
Socket 8
Slot 1
Slot 1, soc 370
Socket 423, 478
Max. add. Bus RAM
4GB
4GB
4GB
4GB
4GB
Intel /Celeron Family:
CPU
Celeron
P II
Celeron
P III
P IV
Generation
6th
6th
7th
External speed range
66-MHz
66-100MHz
100MHz
Internal speed range
256-500MHz
533-700MHz
580MHz-2.4GHz
Voltage
3.3V
3.3V
3.3V
Multiplier
X4-x10.5
X8-x11.5
X8.5-x20.5
L1 cache
32KB
32KB
32KB
L2 Cache
None Early/128KB later
128KB
128KB
L3 Cache
None
None
None
Package
SEC,PGA
PGA
SEC,PGA
Socket
Slot 1, socket 370
Socket 370
Slot1, socket 370
Max. add. Bus RAM
4GB
4GB
4GB
Memory
Note: Primary memory is made from semi conductor and secondary memory is made from magnetic or optical. RAM is also called volatile memory where as Hard Disk, CD and Floppy are Non- Volatile. (Refreshing Each and Every Time)
PROM: PROM is read only memory. It is once programmed and cannot be erased. PROM was used in old type system.
EPROM: It is also read only memory. The data of EPROM can be erased by focusing with the ultra violet rays on it. It takes about 20mins to erase the EPROM. When flashing the entire data of EPROM will be lost. We cannot delete selected memory location. The EPROM chip must be put off the board during the erasing processing. Otherwise the other component near by the chip may be ruined (not functioning or damaged).
EEPROM: It is electrically erasable PROM. We can erase the data of EEPROM in few seconds. We can also delete the related or the selected data from the chip. It is not necessary to put off the chip from the board.
S-RAM: It is fast RAM and it is mainly use for cache memory. The data of a static RAM need not to be refreshed because it can be refreshed automatically. There are mainly two type of cache memory used in CPU. They are L1 & L2 cache memory. L1 is faster than L2 but smaller than L2.
D-RAM: It is slower than S-RAM. It is used as main memory (Primary memory) in CPU. The capacity of D-RAM is greater than S-RAM in Pc but it is slower because D-RAM should be refreshed every time. If the D-RAM did not refresh, the CPU cannot access the D-RAM. The gaping period when the CPU cannot access the D-RAM makes the D-RAM slower. There are mainly two types of D-RAM - Asynchronous
- Synchronous
Asynchronous was used by old system where as modern computer uses synchronous as memory. That is mainly SD-RAM & RD-RAM.
Genetation:
FPM
DIP
30 pins SIMM- Normal SIMM
72 Pin SIMM- Normal SIMM
12 Pin SIMM- EDO SIMM
Note: Normal SIMM RAM = silver color, EDO SIMM RAM = golden color
SIMM Slot : 30 Pin SIMM Slot : 72 Pins
Normal SIMM: EDO SIMM:
i. 30 pin SIMM RAM ii. 72 pin SIMM RAM
iii. 168 pin SDRAM iv. 184 pin DDRAM
v. 184 pin RDRAM
Ports and connectors:
1. Serial Port: -9 Pin
- Com1, com2 (Communication Port i.e. mouse)
- Data transfer rate 1 bit at a time
- Maximum throughout speed 115 kbps (kilo bit / sec)
2. Parallel Port: -25 Pin
- LPT (local printer)
- Data transfer rate 8 bits or 1 byte at a time
- Maximum throughout speed 15, 0000 byte (15 KBPS)
3. Keyboard Port: -5 Pin - DIN
- 6 Pin- Ps/2
4. Mouse Port: -6 Pin- Ps/2
- 9 pin - serial
5. Mouse Port: -15 Pin (CRT) Cathode Ray Tube
- 24 pin (LCD) Liquid Crystal Display, (DVI) Digital Visual Interface
6. Audio Port: - o Speaker
- o out
- o Mic
7. Joystick port - Female DB 15 (game Port)
8. Modem port - RJ 11 (Registered Jack) 4pin
9. Network Interface - RJ 45 8 pin
10. Modern Multifunction Port:
i. USB:- two flavor
USB 1.1 - 12mbps
USB 2.0 - 480mbps
Supportable Device 127
ii. IEEE 1394: fireware (Apple), ilink (sony)
400 mbps upto 800mbps
63 firewire devices support
One set of I / O Address
iii. SCSI: Pin 25, 50, 68
Starting - 5MBPS
Now - 320 MBPS (Only On Laptop)
iv. SATA: Serial Advance TA
Measuring Units:
4 bit = 1 nibble
8 bit = 2 nibble =1 character = 1 byte
1024 byte = 1 kilobyte
1024 KB = 1 Megabyte
1024 MB = 1 gigabyte
1024 GB = 1 Terabyte
1024 TB = 1 Perabyte
1024 PB = 1 Exabyte
Keyboard:
Most common keyboard are:
v 101 key enhanced keyboard
v 104 key windows keyboard
v 82 key Apple standard keyboard
v 108 key Apple Extended Keyboard
Keys:
v Typing key - A to Z
v Number Key - 0 to 9
v Function Key - F1 to F12
v Control key - Alt, Ctrl, Delete, Pageup, Pagedown etc.
Inside Keyboard:
v Position of the key in key matrix
v Amount of bounce and how to filter
v Speed at which to transmit the type-matics
The key matrix is the grid of circuit underneath the key.
When the key posses the key switch against the circuit, there is usually a small amount of vibration between the surfaces, this vibration is known as bounce.
If you continue hold down a key, the processor determines that you wish to send that character repeatedly to the computer this is known as type-matics.
Keyboard Technology:
1. Rubber Dome Mechanism - Flexible rubber dome
2. capacitive Non- mechanism - Spring Loaded
3. metal Contact Mechanism - spring loaded key
4. Membrane Mechanism - It doesn't have separate key but have combined rubber dome.
5. Foam element - Foam
Most common keyboard connector:
5 pin DIN (Deustche Industries Norm) Connector
6 Pin Ps/2
4 Pin USB
Internal Connector (Portable)
Keyboard Cable:
Clock - Green
Data - White
Ground - Blue/ Brown
Volt- yellow / Orange
5 pin keyboard connector:
Pin 1- clock
Pin 2- Data
Pin 3 - reset, not used
Pin 4 - ground
Pin 5 - volt (+ 5)
6 pin PS/2 keyboard connector:
Pin 1- data
Pin 2- not used
Pin 3 - ground
Pin 4 - volt (+5)
Pin 5 - clock
Pin 6 - Not used
Mouse ( Mice)
How mouse function?
1. A ball inside the mouse touches the desktop and rolls when the mouse moves.
2. Two rollers inside the mouse touch the ball. One of the roller is oriented so that it detect the mouse in the X- direction and the other if oriented 90 degree to the first roller so it detect the motion in Y- direction.
3. The roller each connected to a shaft and the first spins a disk with holes in it. When the roller rotated in its shaft a disk spins.
4. On either side of the disk, there is an infrared LED and infrared sensor. The hole in the disk breaks the beam of the light and sensor. The hole in the disk break the beam of the light sent message to the sensor.
5. An onboard processor chip read the pluses from the infrared sensor and turns them into binary data so that the computer understands.
PS/2 connector:
Pin 1- unused
Pin 2- volt (+5)
Pin 3 - unused
Pin 4 - clock
Pin 5 - ground
Pin 6 - data
When ever the mouse moves or the user clicks a button, the mouse sends 3 bytes of data to the computer. The first byte (I.e. 8 bit) contains:
i. left button state (0=off, 1= on)
ii. right button state (0= off, 1= on)
3. 0
4. 1
5. X direction
6. Y direction
7. X overflow
8 Y overflow
The next two byte contains X & Y movement value respectively.
Storage device:
A storage device is the name for several types of storage media and there are also storage media which are not drive like RAM. To be a drive the following things are necessary.
i. A file system can be assigned to them.
ii. They are recognized by OS and they are assigned a drive letter as follows:
Floppy Drive: A, B (FAT, MS-DOS)
Hard Disk: C, D, E, F (FAT, FAT32, NTFS)
CD-ROM: G (CDFS)
CD-R/W: H
Network Drive: I
RAM Drive: M
Removable Storage: J
Storage Principle:
Magnetic Principle: Magnet (Floppy, Hard Disk)
Optical Principle: Lens (CD-ROM, CD-R/W , DVD)
Hard Disk Drive:
A Hard Disk drive contains rigid, disk shaped platters usually constructed of Aluminium or Glass.
A Brief History of Hard Disk:
1. First Hard Disk (1956): IBM's RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) is introduced. It has a capacity of about 5MB, stored on 50.24" disk. Its arial density is 2,000 bits / square inch and its data throughout 8800 bits / second.
2. First Air Bearing head (1962): IBM's Model 1301 with the capacity of 28 MB.
3. First Removable Disk Drive (1965): IBM's Model 2310 is the first removable Disk.
4. First Ferrite Head (1966): IBM's model 2314 is the first Hard Disk that use ferrite core head.
5. First 5.25" Form Factor Disk (1980): Seagate ST-506 is the first drive with 5.25" form factor which was used on old pieces.
6. First 3.5" compactable (1983): Rodine introduce the RO352, the first 3.5" compactable Hard Disk.
Hard Disk Geometry
Different terms and technology used in Hard Disk:
i. Speed: Speed is a rotation of spindal motor which ca rotates 3600 revolution / min or servo control motor use to maintain a constant or accurate rotation rate. That is a sensor in the disk drive constantly monitors how fast the drive spines. Modern Hard Disk has spins at 5400 to 7200 Rpm upto 10,000 Rpm.
ii. Latency: This term describes how long after the command to read or write from the Hard Disk rotates to locate the specific data needed. A modern drive with a 5400 Rpm speed achieves a latency of 506 milliseconds.
iii. Platters: The circular disk in which the digital data is stored in Magnetic domains is termed as Platter. The number of platter onside a Hard Disk influence the speed at which data stored on the drive can be found.
iv. Substrate: Substrate is the material on which magnetic materials are coated form platters. The most common substrate material is Aluminium. A near alternative is Glass.
v. Track: One complete cycle of the platter.
vi. Cylinder: The vertical portion of he each track in different platters is known as cylinder.
vii. Sector: The small arch section of the track is known as sector. It can hold 512byte of data. It is the smallest unit of data storage
Read / Write mechanism:
Each platter has two read / write head. The read/ write head moves synchronously by head actuator. The hard disk data can only be attained via one head at a time. The read / write head has metal coil wounded in iron rod.
If a current is applied to a coil, head will become magnetic. This magnetism will orient the micro magnetic in the track which is write mode.
If the head moves along the track without current applied to the coil, it will sense micro magnetic in the track. This magnetism will induce a current in the coil. These flashes of current represent the data on the disk. This is read mode. These microscopic magnets called domain.
Addressing: method of read / write data
i. CHS (Cylinder Head Sector) [1024cylnder - 8 GB]
ii. LBA (logical Block Address)
Cylinder - 0 to 1024
Head - 0 to 16
Sector-0
File system:
File system helps to store data in the Hard Disk by sequential order. To store data on the Hard Disk the file system breaks down the Hard Disk on the group cluster. Each cluster can be drawn any where on the Hard Disk.
i. FAT System (File Allocated Table) [FAT 12 & 16]
The standard file system recognized by DOS, Win9X & Win NT is FAT. FAT partition support file name upto 11 character under DOS & 255 character on the windows. It can format maximum 2 GB of partition. FAT system use 12-16 bit number clustering size to store the data.
ii. FAT 32:
An optional file system supported by windows95, OSR 2, Win 96, Win NT, Win 2000 & beyond is FAT 32. FAT 32 uses 32 bit number to identify clustering size. FAT 32 support maximum 2 TB of partition.
iii. NTFS (New Technology File System)
The native file system for Win NT, Win 2000 and beyond is NTFS. It supports 256 characters for the file name. It can support maximum 16 exabyte partition. The main feature of the NTFS file system is file and folder level security.
Format
Format is the process of changing the logical structure of Hard Disk. We can format Hard Disk in two ways:
Low level: It is actually used by manufacturer or using third party i.e. software.
High Level: It is done by file system while installing the OS.
Interface:
Interface provider communication channel between drives and the controller of the motherboard. The primary job of the controller or the interface is to transfer and transmit or receive data from drive.
There are 3 types of Interface:
IDE (Integrated Device Electronic-40 pin)
It is the generic term applied to any drive with an integrated disk controller. We can connect maximum four devices (i.e. Hard Disk or CD-ROM) in this interface
IDE 1: Primary
IDE 2: Secondary
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
SCSI is not a disk interface but a system level interface. It supports 8 or 16 devices. It may have 25, 25 or 68 pins.
ATAPI (Advance Technology Attachment Package Interface)
This technology is used only on optical medium i.e. CD, DVD. Combo drive. The file system of ATAPI is CDFS and have 40pins
SATA (Serial Advance Technology Attachment)
CD Drive
CD-ROM (Compactable Disc Read Only Memory)
It is a read only memory optical storage medium capable of holding up to 700MB of data. CD /R and CD R/W are expanding the compact disc capabilities by making them variable a new technology such as DVD’s.
In 1978 Sony and Phillips companies jointly introduced audio CD that was 12 inches Disc. In 1982 the companies announced the standard 4.72 inch format i.e. 120mm diameter, 15mm hole in center and 1.2mm thick.
CD technology:
Most of CD consists of an injected molded piece of clear polycarbonate plastic. During manufacturing the plastic is impressed with microscopic bumps arranged as a single continuous extremely long spiral track of data. Once the clear piece of polycarbonate is formed. A thin reflecting aluminium layer is spotted onto the disk covering the bumps. Then a thin acrylic layer is sprayed over the aluminium to perfect it. The label then printed on the acrylic layer.
You will after read ‘Pits’ on a CD instead of bumps. They appear on pits in the aluminium site but on the side the lacer reads, they are bumps.
The incredible small dimension of bumps makes the spiral track on a CD extremely long. The spiral track of the data is about 5 km long.
Construction and operation:
The CD- ROM is a optical storage device and use circular spinning media. The big different is that the way of information is recordable on the media and the way that is read from the media is same.
Optical Head Assembly:
CD-ROM is read only memory or device and cannot be written. CD Drive cannot use head in the conventional sense. The head is a lens sometimes called a pick up that moves from inside to outside of the surface of the CD – RON disc accessing the different as disc spins.
Operation:
- A beam of light is emitted from an infrared laser (750nm wave length) diode and aimed toward mirror. The mirror is part of head assembly, which moves linearly along with the surface to the disc.
- The light reflects off the mirror and through a focusing lens and shines out a specific point on the disc.
- A certain amount of light is reflected from the disc. The amount of the light reflected depends on which part of the disc the beam strikes each position on the disc is encoded as ‘1’ or ‘0’ based on the presence and absence of “ pits” in the surface of the disc.
- A series of collectors mirror and lens accumulates and focuses the reflected light from the surface of the disc and send it towards photo director.
- The photo director transforms the light energy onto electrical energy. The strength of the signal is depended on how much was reflected from the disc.
Drive Motor: A drive motor spins the disc. The drive motors is preciously control and rotate between 200 - 500 Rpm depending on which track being read.
Laser and Lens: A laser and lens system focus on the disc and read on bumps.
Tracking Motor: A tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly so that the laser beam can flow the spindle track.
Spindle motor: The spindle motor of a standard CD-ROM is very different from Hard Disk floppy disk drive because it doesn't spin at a constant speed. The speed of the drive depends on what part of the disk is being read.
Data Format: PHOTOCOPY
CD Format:
Single Session: In this session once we write the data we cannot rewrite next time if there is remaining space.
Multi Session: In this session we can re- write the data if blank space is remain.
Different CD- Format:
i. CD-DA (Compact Disc Digital Audio): First CD Format was audio CD. This CD use simple rate of 44.1 KHz and 16 bit inside. Audio Data is stored on the disc on blocks. Each block holds 2,352 bytes data.
ii. CD-ROM:
Model 1: This CD format broken down the size of data 2,352 into 2048 byte, remaining 304 byte is used for error detection.
Model 2: It uses 2048 bytes data in a single block and omitted the 304 byte.
iii. Video - CD: It supports for a special CD- format for the storing of compressed video information. Through the use of "Mpeg" format it is possible to store 74 min of full motion video in the same space of audio.
iv. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): DVD use the same form factor as CD-ROM. DVD players uses smaller, thinner infrared that can be read more packet data at a time. The logical format is different in DVD and it can store 7 times of data in one side of the compact disc.
v. CD-R: CD-R drives are especial drive which is very different then a standard CD player because it must include a special laser. The laser is key component from the drive perspective because it burns out data or image into the CD-R drive. It uses ATAPI interface.
vi. CD-R/W: It is new technology which allows CD to be both written and re-written. It is similar to CD-R drive and different thing is the laser
Floppy Disk Drive:
Floppy disk drive is data exchange media for Pc and most popular backup system. IBM invented the floppy disk drive in 1967, which was 8" in size. When IBM
Personal developed in 1981 its size decreased in 5.25". Today's most popular floppy is 3.5" with 1.44 MB capacity.
Role of Floppy Disk Drive:
v Data Transfer
v Small file storage and backup
v Software installation and driver update
Floppy Disk Drive Construction and Operation:
Read / Write Head Media:
The read / write head on the floppy disk are used to convert binary data to electromagnetic pulses, when writing to the disk and the reverse when reading.
Floppy disk uses the ferrite style head. The head is an iron core with wire wrapped around it to form a controllable electromagnet. The floppy drive is a contact recording technology, it mean head directly contact the disk media, instead of using floating head.
Floppy disk drive spins typically 300-600 Rpm. The magnetic oxide and dirt on the head makes it be periodically cleaned. The floppy disk also used a special design that incorporates two erase heads in addition to read / write. These are called ' Tunnet Erase Head'.
Head Actuator:
Head Actuator is device that physically positions the read / writes head over the current track on the surface of the disk. Floppy disk generally has 80 tracks pre side. Stopper motor drives the actuator as the stopper motor turns it moves through various stop position. Each one of these position defines a track on the surface of the disk. The head actuator on a floppy disk are very slow which their seek time much higher.
Spindle Motor:
The spindle motor drives the floppy disk. When disk is inserted, clamps come down on the middle of the disk to motor, which turn disk as it spins. The speed of spindle motor depends on the type of floppy drive.
Floppy Disk
Size & capacity
360KB
5.25"
1.2MB
5.25"
720KB
3.5"
1.44MB
3.5"
2.88MB
3.5"
Spindle speed
300Rpm
360 Rpm
300 Rpm
300 Rpm
300 Rpm
Disk Change Sensor:
Modern floppy drives incorporate a especial sensor and signal on the floppy cable that work in conjunction to tell the floppy controller when a disk is ejected and a new one is inserted. This signal is used for performance reason as keeping track of when the disk is changed.
Logic Board:
The floppy disk contains an integrated logic board that act as the drive controller. This controls the read / writes head, spindle motor, head actuator and other component. The circuit on this board also talks to the floppy disk controller over the floppy interface.
Media Density:
The density of the disk surface refers to the amount of data that can be stored in a given amount of space. This is a function of two basic factors:
v How many tracks can be fit on disk (track density)
v How many bits can be fit on each track (bit density)
Density
Characteristics
360KB
5.25"
1.2MB
5.25"
720KB
3.5"
1.44MB
3.5"
2.88MB
3.5"
Track Density
48
96
135
135
135
Bit Density
8876
9869
8713
17434
34868
Density Name
Double Density (DD)
High Density
(HD)
Double Density (DD
High
Density
(HD)
Extra High Density
(ED)
Data Encoding and Decoding:
Data encoding is the process of converting binary information into magnetic pulses that can be stored on the magnetic surface of disk. Floppy disk uses the MFM (Modify Frequency Modulation) for encoding.
Data decoding is the process of converting magnetic pulses into binary information.
Low Level & high Level Format:
Low level format involves the creation of the actual structure of on the surface of the media that are used to hold data. This means recording the tracks and marking the start of each sector on each track is called low level formatting.
The next level or step is high level format. In this process it creates the logical structure of the disk. Such as File Allocated Table (FAT), Root Directory.
Floppy Disk Technology:
- Floppy disk is known as diskette and the common size is 3.5"
- Floppy disk drive: The electro mechanical device that read / writes floppy disk.
- Track: Concentric ring of data on side of a disk
Floppy Disk:
- It uses a plastic based material coated with Iron Oxide. This oxide is a ferro -magnet material.
- It can record information instantly.
- It can be erased reused many times.
- It is inexpensive and easy to use.
The term geometry refers to the organization of the structure. It refers to the numbers of disk surface. The number of track per surface and number of track per sector.
Geometry Specification
360KB
5.25"
1.2MB
5.25"
720KB
3.5"
1.44MB
3.5"
2.88MB
3.5"
Track
40
80
80
80
80
Sector per track
9
15
9
18
36
Total sector per disk
720
2400
1440
2880
5760
Note: Floppy use 512 byte per sector.
Annexure:
ZIF: Zero Intersection Force
PGA: Pin Grid Array
CPU: Central Processing Unit
DMA: Directory Memory Access
ROM BIOS: Read Only Memory Basic Input Output System
CMOS: Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
AGP: Acceleration Graphical Port
PCI: Peripheral Component Interface
ISA: Industry Standard Architecture
IDE: Integrated Device Electronic / Integrated Digital Electrical
FPU: Floating Point Unit
ALU: Arithmetic Logical Unit
PLCC: Pin less Chip Carrier
PQFC: Plastic Quad Flat Pack
EDO: Extended Data Output
VESA: Very Extended Standard Architecture
DIMM: Dual Inline Memory Module
RIMM: Rambus Inline Memory Module
RAM: Random Access Memory
SRAM: Static Random Access Memory
DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory
FPM: Fast Page Mode
SIMM: Single Inline Memory Module
SD-RAM: Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
RD-RAM: Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
V- RAM: Video Random Access Memory
W- RAM: Window Random Access Memory
ROM: Read Only Memory
PROM- Programmable Read Only Memory
EPROM: Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
SCSI: Small Computer System Interface
EIDE: Enhanced Integrated Device Electronic
ATAPT: Advance Technology Attachment Package Interface
SATA: Serial Advance Technology Attachment
UDMA: Ultra Dynamic Memory Access